Enemies' defeat celebrated by 'sending gifts to one another' (Purim) — possible inversion behind 'they will give gifts to one another' as the earth-dwellers celebrate the prophets' death. Verbal contact ('gifts to one another') but ironic reversal; contested.

Therefore the Jews of the villages, who live in the unwalled towns, make the fourteenth day of the month Adar a day of gladness and feasting, a good day, and a day of sending presents of food to one another. Mordecai wrote these things, and sent letters to all the Jews who were in all the provinces of the king Ahasuerus, both near and far, to enjoin them that they should keep the fourteenth and fifteenth days of the month Adar yearly, as the days in which […]


'I will cause breath/spirit to enter you, and you shall live' — Rev's 'the breath of life from God entered into them' is a direct adoption of the dry-bones revivification oracle. Highest volume in the pericope. LXX pneuma zoes entering the slain matches Rev's pneuma zoes.

Thus says the Lord Yahweh to these bones: Behold, I will cause breath to enter into you, and you shall live.


'The breath came into them, and they lived, and stood on their feet' — Rev's 'they stood on their feet' is virtually verbatim from this verse. Together with 37:5 the resurrection of the witnesses is a tableau of Ezekiel 37. LXX estesan epi ton podon auton.

So I prophesied as he commanded me, and the breath came into them, and they lived, and stood up on their feet, an exceedingly great army.


Elijah taken up to heaven (in a whirlwind, with chariot of fire); Rev's witnesses 'went up into heaven in the cloud' completes the Elijah typology of the pair. Strong figural coherence; the cloud-ascent caps the Elijah identification (cf. also the Lord's ascension, Acts 1:9).

As they still went on, and talked, behold, a chariot of fire and horses of fire separated them; and Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven.


God breathing the 'breath of life' (pnoe/pneuma zoes) into the man — the creation source for the phrase 'breath of life,' which Ezek 37 itself reworks. Rev's wording sits atop this Genesis stratum.

Yahweh God formed man from the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul.


'After the three and a half days' again invokes the Danielic 3.5 measure (here the death-interval reversed by resurrection). Maintains the chapter's pervasive half-week symbolism.

He shall speak words against the Most High, and shall wear out the saints of the Most High; and he shall think to change the times and the law; and they shall be given into his hand until a time and times and half a time.


The 'great earthquake' in the day of the LORD before which all tremble — supplies the eschatological earthquake-and-terror of Rev 11:13. Coherent with Rev's seismic theophany vocabulary (recurs at 6:12; 16:18).

For in my jealousy and in the fire of my wrath have I spoken, Surely in that day there shall be a great shaking in the land of Israel; so that the fish of the sea, and the birds of the sky, and the animals of the field, and all creeping things who creep on the earth, and all the men who are on the surface of the earth, shall shake at my presence, and the mountains shall be thrown down, and the steep places shall fall, and every wall shall fall to the […]


The 'seven thousand' Elijah is told remain faithful — possibly inverted in Rev's 'seven thousand people were killed,' a deliberate reversal of the Elijah remnant number. Numerically distinctive enough to register; contested as intentional.

Yet will I leave seven thousand in Israel, all the knees which have not bowed to Baal, and every mouth which has not kissed him.”


'Give glory to the God of Israel/heaven' as the formula of compelled acknowledgment under judgment; background for 'the rest... gave glory to the God of heaven.' Faint, formulaic.

Joshua said to Achan, “My son, please give glory to Yahweh, the God of Israel, and make confession to him. Tell me now what you have done! Don’t hide it from me!”


'The kings of the earth... against the LORD and against his Anointed (Christos)' — Rev's 'the Kingdom of our Lord, and of his Christ' answers and reverses Ps 2's rebellion: the kingdom now belongs to God and his Anointed. Strong on the Lord-and-his-Christ pairing. LXX tou christou autou.

The kings of the earth take a stand, and the rulers take counsel together, against Yahweh, and against his Anointed, saying,


'Why do the nations rage (ethne)?' — Rev's 'the nations were angry (orgisthesan)' directly cites the raging-nations of Ps 2:1, framing the seventh-trumpet judgment as Ps 2 fulfilled. LXX ephryaxan ethne; Rev recasts the verb but the nations-rage motif is unmistakable.

Why do the nations rage, and the peoples plot a vain thing?


The one like a son of man is given an everlasting 'kingdom... that shall not pass away'; Rev's 'the kingdom of the world has become the Kingdom of our Lord... He will reign forever and ever' realizes this Danielic everlasting dominion. Strong coherence with Rev's enthronement theology. LXX basileia aionios.

There was given him dominion, and glory, and a kingdom, that all the peoples, nations, and languages should serve him: his dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away, and his kingdom that which shall not be destroyed.


Judgment 'given to the saints' and the time comes for them to possess the kingdom — undergirds Rev's 'the time for the dead to be judged, and to give... the saints... their reward.' Tightly coherent with the Daniel-7 judgment-and-kingdom sequence.

until the ancient of days came, and judgment was given to the saints of the Most High, and the time came that the saints possessed the kingdom.


'The LORD will reign forever and ever' — the Song of the Sea acclamation Rev quotes as 'He will reign forever and ever.' Near-verbatim. LXX basileuon ton aiona kai ep' aiona kai eti. Strong distinctiveness for the eternal-reign refrain.


Background for the divine 'voices from heaven' theophanic acclamation; faint, generic prophetic-voice topos. Included for maximal coverage.

He said: “Yahweh will roar from Zion, and utter his voice from Jerusalem; and the pastures of the shepherds will mourn, and the top of Carmel will wither.”


'The LORD reigns; let the peoples tremble' — enthronement-psalm pattern (the LORD reigns / nations tremble) matching Rev's 'you have taken your great power, and reigned' over against the angry nations. Coherent with the enthronement-acclamation genre.

Yahweh reigns! Let the peoples tremble. He sits enthroned among the cherubim. Let the earth be moved.


The divine name 'I AM' lies behind Rev's 'the one who is and who was' (ho on kai ho en); LXX ho on at Exod 3:14 is the verbal root of Rev's tripartite name (here truncated as the kingdom now is, dropping 'who is to come'). Thematic/onomastic.

God said to Moses, “I AM WHO I AM,” and he said, “You shall tell the children of Israel this: ‘I AM has sent me to you.’” God said moreover to Moses, “You shall tell the children of Israel this, ‘Yahweh, the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, has sent me to you.’ This is my name forever, and this is my memorial to all generations.


The LORD blesses 'those who fear him, both small and great' — Rev's 'those who fear your name, to the small and the great' adopts this fixed pair. Distinctive 'small and great' fear-the-name formula. LXX tous mikrous meta ton megalon.

He will bless those who fear Yahweh, both small and great.


The ark of the covenant placed in the inner sanctuary; Rev's 'the ark of the Lord's covenant was seen in his temple' draws on the temple/ark theology — the heavenly counterpart of Solomon's ark-in-the-holy-of-holies now disclosed. Coherent with Rev's heavenly-temple frame.

The priests brought in the ark of the covenant of Yahweh to its place, into the oracle of the house, to the most holy place, even under the wings of the cherubim.


Sinai theophany — 'thunders, lightnings... and the whole mountain trembled' — supplies the 'lightnings, sounds, thunders, an earthquake' storm-theophany formula closing the chapter. Recurs as a Rev refrain (4:5; 8:5; 16:18); covenant-at-Sinai resonance fits the just-revealed ark of the covenant.

On the third day, when it was morning, there were thunders and lightnings, and a thick cloud on the mountain, and the sound of an exceedingly loud trumpet; and all the people who were in the camp trembled. Moses led the people out of the camp to meet God; and they stood at the lower part of the mountain. Mount Sinai, all it, smoked, because Yahweh descended on it in fire; and its smoke ascended like the smoke of a furnace, and the whole mountain quaked […]


Judgment with 'great hailstones' in the day of the LORD — background for Rev's 'great hail' in the theophanic finale. Faint, one element of the storm formula.

With pestilence and with blood will I enter into judgment with him; and I will rain on him, and on his hordes, and on the many peoples who are with him, an overflowing shower, and great hailstones, fire, and sulfur.


Joseph's second dream — sun, moon, and eleven stars bowing — supplies the celestial trio (sun, moon, stars) clothing the woman. Strong volume and recurrence: the only OT passage joining all three luminaries with a person; the twelve stars cohere with the patriarchal/tribal symbolism (Joseph + eleven = twelve).

He dreamed yet another dream, and told it to his brothers, and said, “Behold, I have dreamed yet another dream: and behold, the sun and the moon and eleven stars bowed down to me.”


Daughter Zion as a woman writhing and crying out in birth pangs (LXX ōdinousa kai krazei) closely matches 'cried out in pain, laboring to give birth' (krazei ōdinousa). Thematic + verbal correspondence for the laboring-woman = people of God figure.

Like as a woman with child, who draws near the time of her delivery, is in pain and cries out in her pangs; so we have been before you, Yahweh.


The fourth beast 'with ten horns' (Dan 7:7,24) feeds the dragon's ten horns; Daniel's composite-beast imagery underlies the seven-headed ten-horned monster (recombined in Rev 13). Recurrence of Danielic beast schema.

After this I saw in the night visions, and, behold, a fourth animal, awesome and powerful, and strong exceedingly; and it had great iron teeth; it devoured and broke in pieces, and stamped the residue with its feet: and it was diverse from all the animals that were before it; and it had ten horns.


The little horn that 'grew up to the host of heaven, and cast down some of the host and of the stars to the ground, and trampled on them' supplies the tail casting a third of the stars to earth. Verbal: stars cast down to the earth.

It grew great, even to the army of the sky; and some of the army and of the stars it cast down to the ground, and trampled on them.


'Be in pain, and labor to give birth, daughter of Zion, like a woman in travail' — Zion in birth pangs fleeing to the wilderness/Babylon, then rescued. Reinforces the laboring-woman = Zion motif; anticipates 12:6 flight.

Be in pain, and labor to give birth, daughter of Zion, like a woman in travail; for now you will go out of the city, and will dwell in the field, and will come even to Babylon. There you will be rescued. There Yahweh will redeem you from the hand of your enemies.


Zion gives birth before her pangs / brings forth a man child — birth imagery for the eschatological deliverance of God's people; pairs with the male child of 12:5.

“Before she travailed, she gave birth; before her pain came, she delivered a son.


The protoevangelium enmity between the serpent and the woman and her seed underlies the dragon poised to devour the woman's child. Foundational figural frame for the whole chapter (cf. 12:9 'old serpent', 12:17 'rest of her offspring').

I will put hostility between you and the woman, and between your offspring and her offspring. He will bruise your head, and you will bruise his heel.”


Yahweh punishes Leviathan, the fleeing/twisting serpent, the dragon (LXX drakonta) that is in the sea — a chief OT source for 'great red dragon' (drakōn). Recurrence with 12:9; combat-myth backdrop.

In that day, Yahweh with his hard and great and strong sword will punish leviathan, the fleeing serpent, and leviathan the twisted serpent; and he will kill the dragon that is in the sea.


'You broke the heads of the sea monsters' / Leviathan (Ps 74:13–14) — multi-headed chaos dragon supplies the dragon's multiple heads; ancient Chaoskampf imagery. LXX kephalas tōn drakontōn.

You divided the sea by your strength. You broke the heads of the sea monsters in the waters.


Pharaoh as 'the great dragon (LXX drakonta) that lies in the midst of his rivers' — imperial power figured as the river-dragon; contributes to dragon = oppressive empire and to the river/flood of 12:15.

Speak and say, ‘Thus says the Lord Yahweh: “Behold, I am against you, Pharaoh king of Egypt, the great monster that lies in the midst of his rivers, that has said, ‘My river is my own, and I have made it for myself.’


'Are you not it that cut Rahab in pieces, that pierced the monster (LXX drakonta)?' — the primeval dragon-slaying recalled as paradigm for new exodus; faint reinforcement of the dragon motif.

Awake, awake, put on strength, arm of Yahweh; awake, as in the days of old, the generations of ancient times. Isn’t it you who cut Rahab in pieces, who pierced the monster?


Continuation of the little-horn assault on the host/prince of the host; faint reinforcement of the star-casting and the dragon's standing-before-to-devour posture.

Yes, it magnified itself, even to the prince of the army; and it took away from him the continual burnt offering, and the place of his sanctuary was cast down.


'When the morning stars sang together' — stars as heavenly host/angels frames the third of the stars as fallen angels (cf. 12:9). Faint, contested association of stars with angels.

when the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for joy?


'You shall rule them with a rod of iron' — near-verbatim source for the male child who 'is to rule all the nations with a rod of iron' (poimanei en rhabdō sidēra). Rev follows LXX poimanei (shepherd/rule) over Hebrew tero'em (break). Repeated in Rev 2:27; 19:15.

You shall break them with a rod of iron. You shall dash them in pieces like a potter’s vessel.”

Thou shalt rule them with a rod of iron; thou shalt dash them in pieces as a potter's vessel.


'Before she travailed, she gave birth; before her pain came, she delivered a male child (LXX eteken arsen)' — the rare phrase 'male child' (arsen) is lexically distinctive and Zion brings forth a son. High volume and recurrence.


'As soon as Zion travailed, she brought forth her children' — corporate birth of the nation; supports reading the woman as Zion/people of God who bears the child.

Who has heard such a thing? who has seen such things? Shall a land be born in one day? shall a nation be born at once? for as soon as Zion travailed, she gave birth to her children.


'Until the time that she who is in labor has given birth' — the laboring woman whose offspring is the messianic ruler from Bethlehem who will shepherd (5:4). Birth-of-the-ruler typology parallels the rod-of-iron shepherd.

Therefore he will abandon them until the time that she who is in labor gives birth. Then the rest of his brothers will return to the children of Israel.


Moses (the deliverer-child threatened at birth) flees to the wilderness/Midian; broad exodus-flight typology behind the woman's flight to a prepared wilderness place. Faint.

Now when Pharaoh heard this thing, he sought to kill Moses. But Moses fled from the face of Pharaoh, and lived in the land of Midian, and he sat down by a well.


Elijah hidden and fed (nourished) in the wilderness by God's provision (brook Cherith / ravens) — pattern of the faithful sustained in the wilderness during persecution. Faint analogy to being 'nourished' for 1260 days.

“Go away from here, turn eastward, and hide yourself by the brook Cherith, that is before the Jordan.


'A time, times, and half a time' — the 1260 days (3.5 years) reckons the same Danielic period of tribulation; numeric allusion rather than verbal. Explicit verbal echo surfaces at 12:14.

He shall speak words against the Most High, and shall wear out the saints of the Most High; and he shall think to change the times and the law; and they shall be given into his hand until a time and times and half a time.


'At that time Michael shall stand up, the great prince who stands for the children of your people' — Michael as the angelic champion/prince in the eschatological crisis. Names Michael and his protective warfare for God's people.

“At that time shall Michael stand up, the great prince who stands for the children of your people; and there shall be a time of trouble, such as never was since there was a nation even to that same time: and at that time your people shall be delivered, everyone who shall be found written in the book.


'Michael, one of the chief princes' wars against the prince of Persia — establishes Michael as warrior-angel engaged in heavenly combat, the direct backdrop for 'Michael and his angels made war on the dragon.'

But the prince of the kingdom of Persia withstood me twenty-one days; but, behold, Michael, one of the chief princes, came to help me: and I remained there with the kings of Persia.


'Michael your prince' — the only one who contends alongside the angelic messenger; reinforces Michael's role as captain of the heavenly host arrayed against hostile powers.

But I will tell you that which is inscribed in the writing of truth: and there is no one who holds with me against these, but Michael your prince.”


'the old serpent' (ho ophis ho archaios) identifies the dragon with the Eden serpent of Gen 3:1,14 — explicit retrospective naming binding the chapter to the protoevangelium. High lexical link (serpent).

Now the serpent was more subtle than any animal of the field which Yahweh God had made. He said to the woman, “Has God really said, ‘You shall not eat of any tree of the garden?’”


Satan standing at the right hand to accuse (LXX antikeisthai) Joshua the high priest before the angel of Yahweh — paradigm for 'the accuser of our brothers... who accuses them before our God day and night.' Satan-as-prosecutor in the heavenly court.

He showed me Joshua the high priest standing before Yahweh’s angel, and Satan standing at his right hand to be his adversary.


The Satan (ha-satan) in the heavenly council accusing Job (Job 1:9–11; 2:4–5) — the accuser figure 'day and night' before God; underlies 'the accuser of our brothers.'

Then Satan answered Yahweh, and said, “Does Job fear God for nothing?


'How you are fallen from heaven, Day Star (Lucifer), son of the morning! ...cast down to the earth' — the heaven-to-earth casting-down of a rebel celestial figure underlies the dragon being 'thrown down to the earth.' Often read with Luke 10:18.

How you have fallen from heaven, morning star, son of the dawn! How you are cut down to the ground, who laid the nations low!


The guardian cherub cast out / cast down from the mountain of God for pride and violence — secondary 'fall' tradition contributing to the heavenly expulsion of the adversary. Faint and contested.

By the abundance of your traffic they filled your midst with violence, and you have sinned: therefore I have cast you as profane out of the mountain of God; and I have destroyed you, covering cherub, from the midst of the stones of fire.


'Let the heavens be glad... let the earth rejoice; let the sea roar' — the call for heavens to rejoice (and earth/sea contrast) echoes the doxological summons 'rejoice, heavens... Woe to the earth and to the sea.' Faint formulaic parallel.

Let the heavens be glad, and let the earth rejoice. Let the sea roar, and its fullness!


'Sing, heavens; and be joyful, earth' — prophetic summons to the cosmos to rejoice at God's salvation; faint parallel to the heavenly rejoicing of 12:12.

Sing, heavens; and be joyful, earth; and break out into singing, mountains: for Yahweh has comforted his people, and will have compassion on his afflicted.


'they shall be given into his hand until a time and times and half a time' — near-verbatim source for 'a time, and times, and half a time' (kairon kai kairous kai hēmisu kairou); fixes the 3.5-year tribulation period of the woman's nourishment.


'I bore you on eagles' wings, and brought you to myself' — the eagle-wings given to the woman recall God carrying Israel out of Egypt into the wilderness. Strong exodus typology: deliverance into the wilderness.

‘You have seen what I did to the Egyptians, and how I bore you on eagles’ wings, and brought you to myself.


'As an eagle... spreads abroad her wings, takes them, bears them on her pinions' (in the wilderness, 32:10) — eagle bearing Israel through the wilderness; pairs with Exod 19:4 as source of the great eagle's wings.

As an eagle that stirs up her nest, that flutters over her young, he spread abroad his wings, he took them, he bore them on his feathers.


'a time, times, and a half' — the man clothed in linen swears the duration of the shattering of the holy people; reinforces and confirms the Danielic time-period applied to the woman's protection.

I heard the man clothed in linen, who was above the waters of the river, when he held up his right hand and his left hand to heaven, and swore by him who lives forever that it shall be for a time, times, and a half; and when they have made an end of breaking in pieces the power of the holy people, all these things shall be finished.


'enmity between you and the woman, and between your seed and her seed' — directly underlies the dragon's war 'with the rest of her offspring' (tōn loipōn tou spermatos autēs). The protoevangelium's serpent-vs-seed enmity reaches its climax.

I will put hostility between you and the woman, and between your offspring and her offspring. He will bruise your head, and you will bruise his heel.”


'The cords of death surrounded me... floods of ungodliness made me afraid' / 'he drew me out of many waters' (18:16) — the engulfing flood as image of the enemy's deadly assault from which God delivers; backdrop to the serpent's river-flood.

The cords of death surrounded me. The floods of ungodliness made me afraid.


God finds Israel 'in a desert land, and in the waste howling wilderness... he kept him as the apple of his eye' — wilderness as place of divine guarding/nourishment; frames the woman's wilderness refuge.

He found him in a desert land, in the waste howling wilderness. He surrounded him. He cared for him. He kept him as the apple of his eye.


'the earth opens its mouth, and swallows them up' (Korah) — the earth opening its mouth to swallow recalls Yahweh's judicial swallowing; here the earth swallows the river to help the woman. Verbal: earth opened its mouth.

But if Yahweh makes a new thing, and the ground opens its mouth, and swallows them up, with all that belong to them, and they go down alive into Sheol; then you shall understand that these men have despised Yahweh.”


Leviathan 'the dragon that is in the sea' slain by Yahweh — keeps the dragon = sea-serpent identification active as the serpent spews a river; faint reinforcement.

In that day, Yahweh with his hard and great and strong sword will punish leviathan, the fleeing serpent, and leviathan the twisted serpent; and he will kill the dragon that is in the sea.


'You stretched out your right hand, the earth swallowed them' (Song of the Sea, of the Egyptians at the Red Sea waters) — the earth swallowing in the context of waters/enemy at the exodus; faint parallel to earth swallowing the river.

You stretched out your right hand. The earth swallowed them.


'then the waters would have overwhelmed us, the stream would have gone over our soul' — the enemy as engulfing torrent from which God rescues; faint parallel to the river meant to sweep the woman away.

then the waters would have overwhelmed us, the stream would have gone over our soul;


Volume and recurrence: the beast 'coming up out of the sea' replays Dan 7:3 'four great beasts came up from the sea' (LXX/Theod. anabainonta ek tes thalasses); John composites Daniel's four into one. Availability and recurrence very strong across Rev 13.

Four great animals came up from the sea, diverse one from another.


The fourth beast with 'ten horns' (Dan 7:7) supplies the ten horns of Rev 13:1; verbal volume high. Theodotion keras deka.

After this I saw in the night visions, and, behold, a fourth animal, awesome and powerful, and strong exceedingly; and it had great iron teeth; it devoured and broke in pieces, and stamped the residue with its feet: and it was diverse from all the animals that were before it; and it had ten horns.


'Like a leopard' (Rev 13:2) echoes Daniel's third beast 'like a leopard' (Dan 7:6, LXX/Theod. hosei pardalis). Distinctive single-word correspondence.

After this I saw, and behold, another, like a leopard, which had on its back four wings of a bird; the animal had also four heads; and dominion was given to it.


'Feet like those of a bear' inverts/echoes Daniel's second beast 'like a bear' (Dan 7:5, hos arkos). John reverses Daniel's order (lion-bear-leopard-fourth) to leopard-bear-lion.

Behold, another animal, a second, like a bear; and it was raised up on one side, and three ribs were in its mouth between its teeth: and they said thus to it, Arise, devour much flesh.


'Mouth like the mouth of a lion' echoes Daniel's first beast 'like a lioness/lion' (Dan 7:4, hos leaina). Composite of all four Danielic beasts in one creature is the signature reading.

The first was like a lion, and had eagle’s wings: I saw until its wings were plucked, and it was lifted up from the earth, and made to stand on two feet as a man; and a man’s heart was given to it.


'Blasphemous names' on the heads echoes the 'little horn' with 'a mouth speaking great things' (Dan 7:8); blasphemy-motif developed further in 13:5-6. Thematic recurrence strong.

I considered the horns, and behold, there came up among them another horn, a little one, before which three of the first horns were plucked up by the roots: and behold, in this horn were eyes like the eyes of a man, and a mouth speaking great things.


The ten horns and the horn 'whose look was more stout than its fellows... a mouth that spoke great things' (Dan 7:20) reinforces the horn/blasphemy imagery; doublet with 7:8.

and concerning the ten horns that were on its head, and the other horn which came up, and before which three fell, even that horn that had eyes, and a mouth that spoke great things, whose look was more stout than its fellows.


'The dragon gave him his power, his throne, and great authority' parallels Daniel's beasts to whom 'dominion was given' (Dan 7:6 LXX exousia edothe); the divine passive of granted authority is Danielic. Could attach to 7:14 contrast.


The beast rising from the sea evokes the chaos-sea / Leviathan tradition where YHWH rules the raging sea (Ps 89:9-10, crushing Rahab). Figural background to the dragon-sea-beast complex.

You rule the pride of the sea. When its waves rise up, you calm them.


Sea-monster (Leviathan) tradition behind the beast-from-the-sea; cf. 4 Ezra 6:49-52 and 2 Baruch 29:4 splitting Leviathan (sea) and Behemoth (earth) — the very pairing of Rev 13's two beasts. Faint but thematically apt.

“Can you draw out Leviathan with a fish hook, or press down his tongue with a cord?


The self-exalting blasphemy of the king who 'shall speak marvelous things against the God of gods' (Dan 11:36) feeds the blasphemous-names motif; develops in 13:5-6. Faint here, stronger later.

The king shall do according to his will; and he shall exalt himself, and magnify himself above every god, and shall speak marvelous things against the God of gods; and he shall prosper until the indignation be accomplished; for that which is determined shall be done.


'Who is like the beast?' is a dark parody of 'Who is like you, O LORD?' (Exod 15:11, mi kamokah; LXX tis homoios soi). Anti-doxology; the incomparability formula is liturgical. Also Ps 35:10; 113:5.

Who is like you, Yahweh, among the gods? Who is like you, glorious in holiness, fearful in praises, doing wonders?


'A mouth speaking great things' is a near-quotation of the little horn's 'a mouth speaking great things' (Dan 7:8, stoma laloun megala; cf. 7:20). Highest verbal volume in the pericope.


'Authority... for forty-two months' renders Daniel's 'time, times, and half a time' (Dan 7:25 = 3.5 yrs = 42 months), and 'speak words against the Most High and wear out the saints.' Both the blasphemy and the period derive here. Distinctive and recurrent (cf. Rev 11:2-3; 12:14).

He shall speak words against the Most High, and shall wear out the saints of the Most High; and he shall think to change the times and the law; and they shall be given into his hand until a time and times and half a time.


'To make war with the saints, and to overcome them' is verbally close to Dan 7:21 'the horn made war with the saints and prevailed against them' (LXX epoiei polemon... katischysen). Strong verbal and thematic match.

I saw, and the same horn made war with the saints, and prevailed against them;


'War with the saints, and to overcome them' also draws on Dan 7:25 'shall wear out the saints of the Most High'; doublet with 7:21. The 'hagioi' worn down/overcome is Danielic vocabulary.


'Blasphemy against God, to blaspheme his name' echoes the king who 'shall exalt himself... and speak marvelous things against the God of gods' (Dan 11:36, lalesei... epi ton theon ton theon hyperphana). Self-deifying blasphemy plus the granted-time motif.


'Authority to make war... and to overcome them' parallels Dan 8:24 'he shall destroy... the mighty and the holy people' (the king of bold countenance prospering and destroying the saints). Reinforces 7:21,25.

His power shall be mighty, but not by his own power; and he shall destroy wonderfully, and shall prosper in what he does; and he shall destroy the mighty ones and the holy people.


'The book of life... whose name has not been written' draws on the heavenly book Moses invokes: 'blot me out of your book which you have written' (Exod 32:32-33, ek tes biblou sou). Source of the book-of-life register.

Yet now, if you will, forgive their sin—and if not, please blot me out of your book which you have written.”


'The book of life' echoes 'let them be blotted out of the book of the living (biblou zonton), and not be written with the righteous' (Ps 69:28 [LXX 68:29]). Closest verbal match for 'book of life' phrase.

Let them be blotted out of the book of life, and not be written with the righteous.


'Whose name has... been written' echoes Dan 12:1 'everyone who is found written in the book shall be delivered' (gegrammenos en te biblo). Eschatological register of the written/unwritten name.

“At that time shall Michael stand up, the great prince who stands for the children of your people; and there shall be a time of trouble, such as never was since there was a nation even to that same time: and at that time your people shall be delivered, everyone who shall be found written in the book.


'Authority over every tribe, people, language, and nation' parodies the Son of Man's dominion: 'all peoples, nations, and languages should serve him' (Dan 7:14, panta ta ethne, phylai, glossai). Beast usurps the Son of Man's universal rule.

There was given him dominion, and glory, and a kingdom, that all the peoples, nations, and languages should serve him: his dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away, and his kingdom that which shall not be destroyed.


'The Lamb who has been killed' (esphagmenou) draws on the suffering servant 'like a lamb that is led to the slaughter' (Isa 53:7, hos probaton epi sphagen); arnion/sphazo cluster underlies Revelation's Lamb christology (cf. Rev 5:6,12).

He was oppressed, yet when he was afflicted he didn’t open his mouth. As a lamb that is led to the slaughter, and as a sheep that before its shearers is mute, so he didn’t open his mouth.


'If anyone is to go into captivity... if anyone is to be killed with the sword' reworks Jer 15:2 'such as are for death, to death; such as are for the sword, to the sword; such as are for captivity, to captivity' (LXX eis aichmalosian / eis machairan). Distinctive fourfold-fate formula.

It shall happen, when they tell you, Where shall we go out? Then you shall tell them, Thus says Yahweh: Such as are for death, to death; and such as are for the sword, to the sword; and such as are for the famine, to the famine; and such as are for captivity, to captivity.


Doublet of the captivity/sword fate formula: 'such as are for death to death, for captivity to captivity, for the sword to the sword' (Jer 43:11 [LXX 50:11]). Reinforces Jer 15:2 as the source pattern.

He shall come, and shall strike the land of Egypt; such as are for death shall be put to death, and such as are for captivity to captivity, and such as are for the sword to the sword.


The lex talionis logic 'he who leads into captivity goes into captivity' may also draw on Isa 33:1 'when you cease to deal treacherously, they shall deal treacherously with you.' Faint, contested.

Woe to you who destroy, but you weren’t destroyed; and who betray, but nobody betrayed you! When you have finished destroying, you will be destroyed; and when you have made an end of betrayal, you will be betrayed.


'If anyone has an ear, let him hear' is a prophetic summons widely diffused (Ezek 3:27; 12:2; Isa 6:9-10); its Revelation form follows the Gospel-saying tradition. Faint OT base.

For I am Yahweh; I will speak, and the word that I shall speak shall be performed; it shall be no more deferred: for in your days, rebellious house, will I speak the word, and will perform it, says the Lord Yahweh.


'Another beast coming up out of the earth' parallels Daniel's beasts which 'shall arise out of the earth' (Dan 7:17, anastesontai... apo tes ges) — note Daniel's interpretation says 'earth' though the vision says 'sea.' John may exploit this sea/earth doublet for his two beasts.

These great animals, which are four, are four kings, who shall arise out of the earth.


'Two horns' on the second beast recalls the ram 'which had two horns' (Dan 8:3, ho keras ta dyo); the 'lamb-like' two horns parody both the ram and the Lamb of Rev 5. Number-of-horns correspondence.

Then I lifted up my eyes, and saw, and behold, there stood before the river a ram which had two horns: and the two horns were high; but one was higher than the other, and the higher came up last.


The earth-beast as false prophet working signs to lead worship astray is the Deuteronomic test of the false prophet: 'if a prophet... gives you a sign or wonder, and the sign comes to pass, and he says Let us go after other gods... you shall not listen' (Deut 13:1-5). Signs that succeed yet deceive is the precise Deuteronomic danger.

If a prophet or a dreamer of dreams arises in your midst you, and he gives you a sign or a wonder,


'Making fire come down out of the sky to the earth' parodies Elijah at Carmel: 'the fire of the LORD fell' (1 Kgs 18:38, epesen pyr para kyriou); the false prophet counterfeits the prophetic sign that validated YHWH. Distinctive Elijah typology.

Then the fire of Yahweh fell, and consumed the burnt offering, and the wood, and the stones, and the dust, and licked up the water that was in the trench.


'Fire come down out of the sky' also echoes Elijah calling down fire on the captains: 'let fire come down from heaven' (2 Kgs 1:10,12, katabeto pyr ek tou ouranou) — verbally the closest 'fire down from heaven' parallel. Cf. the eschatological false-prophet fire of Sib. Or.; cf. Rev 11:5 (the two witnesses' fire, here counterfeited).

Elijah answered to the captain of fifty, “If I am a man of God, let fire come down from the sky, and consume you and your fifty!” Fire came down from the sky, and consumed him and his fifty.


'An image to the beast... cause as many as wouldn't worship the image... to be killed' replays Nebuchadnezzar's golden image: all peoples must fall down and worship it, on pain of death (Dan 3:5-6,15, proskynesate te eikoni). Compelled image-worship-or-death is the controlling parallel.

that whenever you hear the sound of the horn, flute, zither, lyre, harp, pipe, and all kinds of music, you fall down and worship the golden image that Nebuchadnezzar the king has set up;


'Cause... to be killed' those who would not worship the image echoes Dan 3:6 'whoever does not fall down and worship shall... be cast into a burning fiery furnace' (eis ten kaminon). Death-penalty enforcement of image-worship.

and whoever doesn’t fall down and worship shall the same hour be cast into the midst of a burning fiery furnace.


'He makes the earth and those who dwell in it to worship' echoes the universal compliance of Dan 3:7 'all the peoples, nations, and languages fell down and worshiped the golden image.' Universal-worship motif.

Therefore at that time, when all the peoples heard the sound of the horn, flute, zither, lyre, harp, pipe, and all kinds of music, all the peoples, the nations, and the languages, fell down and worshiped the golden image that Nebuchadnezzar the king had set up.


'To give breath to it, to the image... that the image should... speak' parodies God breathing the breath of life into the man (Gen 2:7, enephysesen... pnoen zoes); only God animates an image. Idol-given-life is blasphemous counterfeit of creation.

Yahweh God formed man from the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul.


'To give breath to it... that the image should speak' may echo Ezek 37:9-10, breath (pneuma) entering the slain so they live and stand; the false prophet usurps the Spirit's life-giving work.

So I prophesied as he commanded me, and the breath came into them, and they lived, and stood up on their feet, an exceedingly great army.


The animated speaking idol inverts the prophetic idol-polemic: idols are 'a teacher of lies... there is no breath at all in it' (Hab 2:18-19; cf. Ps 115:5 'they have mouths but speak not'; Jer 10:5; Ep. Jer.). The beast's image speaks — a satanic reversal of the dumb idol.

“What value does the engraved image have, that its maker has engraved it; the molten image, even the teacher of lies, that he who fashions its form trusts in it, to make mute idols?


The 'image' provoking idolatrous worship may glance at Ezekiel's 'image of jealousy' in the temple (Ezek 8:3-5, eikon tou zelous). Faint; supports the image-of-the-beast as cultic abomination.

He stretched out the form of a hand, and took me by a lock of my head; and the Spirit lifted me up between earth and the sky, and brought me in the visions of God to Jerusalem, to the door of the gate of the inner court that looks toward the north; where there was the seat of the image of jealousy, which provokes to jealousy.


'He deceives... those who dwell on the earth because of the signs' restates Deut 13:3: the sign-working prophet is the LORD's test 'to know whether you love the LORD'; deception-through-validated-signs. Doublet with 13:1.

you shall not listen to the words of that prophet, or to that dreamer of dreams; for Yahweh your God is testing you, to know whether you love Yahweh your God with all your heart and with all your soul.


The 'mark... on their right hands, or on their foreheads' parodies the Passover/Exodus sign: 'it shall be for a sign upon your hand, and for frontlets between your eyes' (Exod 13:16; cf. 13:9, epi tes cheiros... pro ophthalmon). The beast's mark counterfeits Israel's covenant sign (and the seal of Rev 7:3; 14:1).

It shall be for a sign on your hand, and for symbols between your eyes: for by strength of hand Yahweh brought us out of Egypt.”


'Marks on their right hands, or on their foreheads' echoes the Shema's command: 'bind them as a sign on your hand, and... as frontlets between your eyes' (Deut 6:8; cf. 11:18). Hand/forehead pairing is the tefillin/covenant-loyalty marker the beast counterfeits.

You shall bind them for a sign on your hand, and they shall be for frontlets between your eyes.


Marking the forehead recalls Ezekiel's protective mark (taw) set 'on the foreheads' of the faithful (Ezek 9:4, epi ta metopa); the beast's forehead-mark is the dark antitype of the divine seal (Rev 7:3). Loyalty-marking motif.

Yahweh said to him, Go through the midst of the city, through the midst of Jerusalem, and set a mark on the foreheads of the men that sigh and that cry over all the abominations that are done in its midst.


Doublet of the hand/eyes sign: 'a sign on your hand, and a memorial between your eyes, that the LORD's law may be in your mouth' (Exod 13:9). Reinforces Exod 13:16 / Deut 6:8 as the covenant-sign background.

It shall be for a sign to you on your hand, and for a memorial between your eyes, that Yahweh’s law may be in your mouth; for with a strong hand Yahweh has brought you out of Egypt.


'Let him calculate the number of the beast... the number of a man' — the wisdom-to-discern motif ('Here is wisdom... understanding') resonates with Daniel's apocalyptic call for the wise (maskilim) to understand (Dan 12:10; 'understanding in all visions' Dan 1:17; 8:23-25). Gematria itself is extra-biblical technique.

Through his policy he shall cause craft to prosper in his hand; and he shall magnify himself in his heart, and he shall destroy many in their security. He shall also stand up against the prince of princes; but he shall be broken without hand.


Faint: 666 may evoke Solomon's annual gold of '666 talents' (1 Kgs 10:14; 2 Chr 9:13) as a number of imperial wealth/apostasy. Contested; most read 666 as gematria (Nero Caesar = nrwn qsr = 666) or symbolic triple-falling-short of 7.

Now the weight of gold that came to Solomon in one year was six hundred sixty-six talents of gold,


Economic exclusion ('no one able to buy or sell') develops the beast's total dominion over the saints from Dan 7:25 (wearing out the saints, changing times and law); the mark enforces that sovereignty in daily commerce. Thematic, faint.

He shall speak words against the Most High, and shall wear out the saints of the Most High; and he shall think to change the times and the law; and they shall be given into his hand until a time and times and half a time.


The messianic king/anointed installed 'on Zion, my holy hill' underlies the Lamb standing on Mount Zion as eschatological gathering point; thematic coherence and recurrence (Ps 2 cited Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15). Hebrew and LXX agree on Zion as the locus of enthronement.

“Yet I have set my King on my holy hill of Zion.”


On Mount Zion there is the remnant of survivors/redeemed whom the LORD calls; supplies the gathered eschatological company on Zion who bear the divine name. Volume and thematic fit; LXX Joel 3:5 (= Heb 2:32) reads 'in Mount Zion... shall be those who are saved.'

It will happen that whoever will call on Yahweh’s name shall be saved; for in Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there will be those who escape, as Yahweh has said, and among the remnant, those whom Yahweh calls.


Mount Zion glorified/protected over the assembled redeemed; reinforces Zion as place of the sealed, sanctified remnant. Faint verbal contact, strong thematic coherence.

Yahweh will create over the whole habitation of Mount Zion, and over her assemblies, a cloud and smoke by day, and the shining of a flaming fire by night; for over all the glory will be a canopy.


'Sing to him a new song' — the new-song motif (Heb shir chadash; LXX asma kainon) directly behind 'they sing a new song before the throne.' High volume of recurrence in Rev 5:9; 14:3.

Sing to him a new song. Play skillfully with a shout of joy!


'I will sing a new song to you, God; on a harp of ten strings I will sing praises' — joins the new song with harp playing, exactly the pairing in 14:2–3. Verbal and thematic coherence.

I will sing a new song to you, God. On a ten-stringed lyre, I will sing praises to you.


'Sing to the LORD a new song' — enthronement-psalm new song before the throne reinforcing the doxological setting. Parallel to Ps 33:3; cumulative new-song tradition.

Sing to Yahweh a new song! Sing to Yahweh, all the earth.


'Sing to the LORD a new song, for he has done marvelous things' — victory/redemption framing of the new song; coheres with 'redeemed out of the earth.'

Sing to Yahweh a new song, for he has done marvelous things! His right hand, and his holy arm, have worked salvation for him.


Firstfruits (Heb reshit; LXX aparchas) belong to God — directly behind 'the first fruits to God and to the Lamb.' Cultic offering language transferred to the redeemed as God's portion.

The first of the first fruits of your ground you shall bring into the house of Yahweh your God. “You shall not boil a young goat in its mother’s milk.


'Israel was holiness to the LORD, the firstfruits of his increase' — the firstfruits-as-consecrated-people typology underlying the 144,000 as firstfruits; those who 'devour' them incur guilt, matching the protected/blameless status. LXX aparche.

Israel was holiness to Yahweh, the first fruits of his increase. All who devour him shall be held guilty. Evil shall come on them,”’ says Yahweh.”


The firstborn/firstfruits consecrated and claimed by the LORD as his own; reinforces the redeemed-as-God's-possession sense of aparche. Conceptual rather than verbal.

for all the firstborn are mine. On the day that I struck down all the firstborn in the land of Egypt I made holy to me all the firstborn in Israel, both man and animal. They shall be mine. I am Yahweh.”


A mark set on the foreheads of the faithful to distinguish them — the source for the divine name 'written on their foreheads.' Strong thematic coherence with Rev 7:3; 14:1.


The voice/glory of God 'like the sound of many waters' — directly behind 'a sound from heaven, like the sound of many waters.' Verbal parallel (LXX phone hydaton pollon).

Behold, the glory of the God of Israel came from the way of the east: and his voice was like the sound of many waters; and the earth shined with his glory.


Eschatological deliverance of those 'written in the book' / sealed remnant; faint contact with the named, redeemed company. Contested as background to the sealing motif.

“At that time shall Michael stand up, the great prince who stands for the children of your people; and there shall be a time of trouble, such as never was since there was a nation even to that same time: and at that time your people shall be delivered, everyone who shall be found written in the book.


'The remnant of Israel will not... speak lies; a deceitful tongue will not be found in their mouth' — directly behind 'in their mouth was found no lie, for they are blameless.' Verbal coherence.

The remnant of Israel will not do iniquity, nor speak lies, neither will a deceitful tongue be found in their mouth, for they will feed and lie down, and no one will make them afraid.”


'Neither was any deceit in his mouth' — Servant's guiltless speech echoed in the blameless lambs who follow the Lamb; figural transfer of Servant integrity to the redeemed.

They made his grave with the wicked, and with a rich man in his death; although he had done no violence, neither was any deceit in his mouth.


The blameless one who may dwell on God's holy hill / speaks truth in his heart; faint Zion-entrance-liturgy backdrop for the blameless on Mount Zion.

Yahweh, who shall dwell in your sanctuary? Who shall live on your holy hill? He who walks blamelessly does what is right, and speaks truth in his heart;


The sheaf of firstfruits waved before the LORD — cultic firstfruits ritual reinforcing aparche imagery for the 144,000. Conceptual support to Exod 23:19.

“Speak to the children of Israel, and tell them, ‘When you have come into the land which I give to you, and shall reap its harvest, then you shall bring the sheaf of the first fruits of your harvest to the priest: and he shall wave the sheaf before Yahweh, to be accepted for you. On the next day after the Sabbath the priest shall wave it.


'Ascribe to the LORD glory... worship the LORD in holy array' (LXX Ps 95) — the call to give glory and worship the LORD to all peoples directly underlies 'give him glory... worship him.' High thematic coherence with the universal address.

Ascribe to Yahweh, you families of nations, ascribe to Yahweh glory and strength. Ascribe to Yahweh the glory due to his name. Bring an offering, and come into his courts. Worship Yahweh in holy array. Tremble before him, all the earth.


'The LORD made the heaven, the earth, the sea, and all that is in them' — the Sabbath-commandment creation formula directly behind 'Worship him who made the heaven, the earth, the sea, and the springs of waters.' Verbal parallel of the tripartite cosmos.

for in six days Yahweh made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and rested the seventh day; therefore Yahweh blessed the Sabbath day, and made it holy.


'You... have made heaven... the earth and all things on it, the seas and all that is in them... and the host of heaven worships you' — Creator-worship formula reinforcing the call to worship the Maker. Strong conceptual and verbal coherence.

You are Yahweh, even you alone. You have made heaven, the heaven of heavens, with all their army, the earth and all things that are on it, the seas and all that is in them, and you preserve them all. The army of heaven worships you.


'Who made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them' — the same creation formula commending worship/trust in the Maker; cumulative with Exod 20:11 and Neh 9:6.

who made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them; who keeps truth forever;


'Honor and majesty are before him' — the glory-of-the-LORD ascription feeding 'give him glory'; part of the Ps 96 enthronement matrix.

Honor and majesty are before him. Strength and beauty are in his sanctuary.


'For he comes to judge the earth' — the announcement that 'the hour of his judgment has come' draws on the enthronement-psalm advent-to-judge motif.

before Yahweh; for he comes, for he comes to judge the earth. He will judge the world with righteousness, the peoples with his truth.


Dominion given so that 'all peoples, nations, and languages should serve him' — directly behind 'every nation, tribe, language, and people.' Recurrent Danielic fourfold formula in Rev (5:9; 7:9; 13:7).

There was given him dominion, and glory, and a kingdom, that all the peoples, nations, and languages should serve him: his dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away, and his kingdom that which shall not be destroyed.


'The day of the LORD comes... it is near' — eschatological imminence behind 'the hour of his judgment has come.' Faint, thematic.

Blow the trumpet in Zion, and sound an alarm in my holy mountain! Let all the inhabitants of the land tremble, for the day of Yahweh comes, for it is close at hand:


'Fallen, fallen is Babylon; and all the engraved images of her gods are broken' — the verbatim doubled 'fallen, fallen' announcement (LXX peptoken peptoken Babylon) directly behind 'Babylon the great has fallen.' Highest verbal density.

Behold, here comes a troop of men, horsemen in pairs.” He answered, “Fallen, fallen is Babylon; and all the engraved images of her gods are broken to the ground.


'Babylon... a golden cup... that made all the earth drunk; the nations have drunk of her wine... Babylon has suddenly fallen' — supplies both the fall and 'made all the nations to drink of the wine.' Strong verbal and thematic coherence (LXX Jer 28:7-8).

Babylon has been a golden cup in Yahweh’s hand, who made all the earth drunken: the nations have drunk of her wine; therefore the nations are mad. Babylon is suddenly fallen and destroyed: wail for her; take balm for her pain, if so be she may be healed.


'Take this cup of the wine of wrath from my hand, and cause all the nations... to drink it' — the cup of God's wrath given to the nations directly behind 'drink of the wine of the wrath of God... the cup of his anger.' Verbal coherence (LXX Jer 32).

For thus says Yahweh, the God of Israel, to me: take this cup of the wine of wrath at my hand, and cause all the nations, to whom I send you, to drink it. They shall drink, and reel back and forth, and be mad, because of the sword that I will send among them.


'In the hand of the LORD there is a cup, and the wine foams... all the wicked of the earth shall drink' — the cup of wrath the wicked must drain, behind 'the cup of his anger' poured for the beast-worshipers. The 'unmixed/full strength' note plays on the psalm's full-strength wine.

For in the hand of Yahweh there is a cup, full of foaming wine mixed with spices. He pours it out. Indeed the wicked of the earth drink and drink it to its very dregs.


'The cup of his wrath... the bowl of the cup of staggering' which the nations drink — behind 'the cup of his anger' and the wine of wrath imagery. Verbal coherence.

Awake, awake, stand up, Jerusalem, that have drunk at the hand of Yahweh the cup of his wrath; you have drunken the bowl of the cup of staggering, and drained it.


The cup of staggering/wrath transferred from Zion to her tormentors — reinforces the reversal whereby the persecutors now drink God's wrath. Companion to Isa 51:17.

Thus says your Lord Yahweh, and your God who pleads the cause of his people, “Behold, I have taken out of your hand the cup of staggering, even the bowl of the cup of my wrath; you shall no more drink it again:


The LORD rained 'fire and sulfur' (Heb gophrith wa-esh; LXX theion kai pyr) on Sodom — directly behind 'tormented with fire and sulfur.' Paradigmatic judgment imagery.

Then Yahweh rained on Sodom and on Gomorrah sulfur and fire from Yahweh out of the sky.


'The smoke of the land went up like the smoke of a furnace' — behind 'the smoke of their torment goes up.' Verbal parallel of rising smoke of judgment (LXX anebainen... kapnos).

He looked toward Sodom and Gomorrah, and toward all the land of the plain, and looked, and saw that the smoke of the land went up as the smoke of a furnace.


Edom's streams become burning pitch and sulfur; 'its smoke shall go up forever; from generation to generation it shall lie waste' — directly behind 'the smoke of their torment goes up forever and ever' and 'no rest day and night.' Strong verbal and thematic coherence.

Its streams will be turned into pitch, its dust into sulfur, And its land will become burning pitch. It won’t be quenched night nor day. Its smoke will go up forever. From generation to generation, it will lie waste. No one will pass through it forever and ever.


Topheth prepared with fire and much wood, the breath of the LORD like a stream of sulfur kindling it — reinforces the fire-and-sulfur torment 'prepared' for the wicked.

For his burning place has long been ready. Yes, for the king it is prepared. He has made its pyre deep and large with fire and much wood. Yahweh’s breath, like a stream of sulfur, kindles it.


The horn making war on the saints until judgment — backdrop for 'the perseverance of the saints' enduring the beast. Conceptual, contested.

I saw, and the same horn made war with the saints, and prevailed against them; until the ancient of days came, and judgment was given to the saints of the Most High, and the time came that the saints possessed the kingdom.


The land that has no rest after judgment — faint contact with 'they have no rest day and night.' Verbal parallel uncertain.

The wild animals of the desert will meet with the wolves, and the wild goat will cry to his fellow. Yes, the night creature shall settle there, and shall find herself a place of rest.


The righteous taken away from calamity 'enters into peace; they rest in their beds' — behind 'blessed are the dead... they may rest from their labors.' Thematic coherence on the rest of the righteous dead.

The righteous perishes, and no man lays it to heart; and merciful men are taken away, no one considering that the righteous is taken away from the evil. He enters into peace; they rest in their beds, each one who walks in his uprightness.


God's rest from his works on the seventh day — faint Sabbath-rest backdrop for 'rest from their labors.' Conceptual only.

On the seventh day God finished his work which he had done; and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had done. God blessed the seventh day, and made it holy, because he rested in it from all his work of creation which he had done.


The macarism form ('Blessed is...') of the Psalter underlies the beatitude pronounced on the faithful dead. Form-critical rather than verbal.

Blessed is the man who doesn’t walk in the counsel of the wicked, nor stand on the path of sinners, nor sit in the seat of scoffers;


Second-Temple expectation that 'the recompense shall follow, and the reward shall appear; the deeds... shall awake' — parallel idea that 'their works follow with them.' Likely shared apocalyptic tradition rather than direct dependence.

[source text not in the World English Bible]


'One like a son of man came with the clouds of heaven' — directly behind 'on the cloud one sitting like a son of man.' Highest verbal density; LXX/Theodotion 'hos huios anthropou.' The golden crown develops the dominion given him.

I saw in the night visions, and behold, there came with the clouds of the sky one like a son of man, and he came even to the ancient of days, and they brought him near before him.


'Put in the sickle, for the harvest is ripe' — directly behind 'send your sickle... the harvest of the earth is ripe.' Verbal parallel (LXX Joel 4:13 'exaposteilate drepana, hoti paresteken trygetos'). Joel governs both this grain harvest and the following vintage.

Put in the sickle; for the harvest is ripe. Come, tread, for the wine press is full, the vats overflow, for their wickedness is great.”


'Babylon is like a threshing floor at the time when it is trodden; yet a little while, and the time of harvest shall come for her' — eschatological harvest-of-judgment imagery reinforcing 'the hour to reap has come.' (LXX Jer 28:33.)

For thus says Yahweh of Armies, the God of Israel: The daughter of Babylon is like a threshing floor at the time when it is trodden; yet a little while, and the time of harvest shall come for her.


The LORD threshing and gathering his people one by one — faint harvest-gathering backdrop. Contested.

It will happen in that day, that Yahweh will thresh from the flowing stream of the Euphrates to the brook of Egypt; and you will be gathered one by one, children of Israel.


'I have trodden the wine press alone... their lifeblood is sprinkled on my garments... I trampled the peoples in my anger' — the locus classicus behind the winepress of wrath trodden and the blood, with the 'day of vengeance.' Highest thematic density; LXX and Hebrew agree on treading the press in wrath.

Who is this who comes from Edom, with dyed garments from Bozrah? this who is glorious in his clothing, marching in the greatness of his strength? “It is I who speak in righteousness, mighty to save.” Why are you red in your clothing, and your garments like him who treads in the wine vat? “I have trodden the wine press alone; and of the peoples there was no man with me: yes, I trod them in my anger, and trampled them in my wrath; and their lifeblood is […]


'The wine press is full, the vats overflow, for their wickedness is great' (continuing 'put in the sickle') — directly behind 'gather the clusters... threw it into the great wine press.' Joel pairs sickle-harvest and overflowing winepress exactly as Rev does (LXX Joel 4:13).


'The Lord has trodden the virgin daughter of Judah as in a wine press' — directly behind 'the wine press was trodden outside of the city,' transferring the trodden-press judgment to the wicked. Verbal coherence (LXX lenon epatesen).

The Lord has set at nothing all my mighty men in the midst of me; He has called a solemn assembly against me to crush my young men: The Lord has trodden as in a wine press the virgin daughter of Judah.


'I have trodden the winepress alone... their blood is sprinkled upon my garments' — the specific source of blood from the trodden press; distinct citation within Isa 63:1-6, listed for the blood-and-treading detail.

“I have trodden the wine press alone; and of the peoples there was no man with me: yes, I trod them in my anger, and trampled them in my wrath; and their lifeblood is sprinkled on my garments, and I have stained all my clothing.


'The horse shall walk through the blood of sinners up to its chest' — a strikingly close Second-Temple parallel to 'blood... to the bridles of the horses.' Shared apocalyptic tradition of blood at horse-height in eschatological slaughter.


The LORD's wrath against all nations; the slain cast out, mountains flowing with their blood — reinforces the cosmic blood-of-wrath imagery of the vintage. Thematic coherence.

For Yahweh is enraged against all the nations, and angry with all their armies. He has utterly destroyed them. He has given them over for slaughter. Their slain will also be cast out, and the stench of their dead bodies will come up; and the mountains will melt in their blood.


The sacrificial slaughter where horses and warriors are consumed — faint backdrop for the bloody battle-slaughter and horse imagery. Contested.

You, son of man, thus says the Lord Yahweh: Speak to the birds of every sort, and to every animal of the field, Assemble yourselves, and come; gather yourselves on every side to my sacrifice that I do sacrifice for you, even a great sacrifice on the mountains of Israel, that you may eat flesh and drink blood. You shall eat the flesh of the mighty, and drink the blood of the princes of the earth, of rams, of lambs, and of goats, of bulls, all of them […]


Covenant-curse formula of sevenfold plagues for disobedience ('I will bring seven times more plagues on you'); the 'seven last plagues' draws on this stylized completeness. Recurs at Lev 26:18, 24, 28. LXX heptakis matches.

“‘If you walk contrary to me, and won’t listen to me, then I will bring seven times more plagues on you according to your sins.


The plague (Heb. nega/maggephah) language and the climactic 'one plague more' that finishes God's judgment on Egypt frames the exodus-typology running through Rev 15-16. Thematic/structural rather than verbal.

Yahweh said to Moses, “Yet one plague more will I bring on Pharaoh, and on Egypt; afterwards he will let you go. When he lets you go, he will surely thrust you out altogether.


'extraordinary plagues, great and lasting' as covenant curse; supplies the 'great' (megas) intensifier for eschatological plagues. Faint, conceptual.

then Yahweh will make your plagues fearful, and the plagues of your seed, even great plagues, and of long duration, and severe sicknesses, and of long duration.


Marked separately as the 'wrath finished/completed' (etelesthe) idea: God's wrath reaching its full measure echoes the completion of covenant curses. Contested as distinct from the plague-count allusion.


Explicit naming: 'the song of Moses' = the Song of the Sea (Exod 15:1-18), sung after Israel passed through the sea and Egypt's army drowned. The victors standing by the 'sea of glass' having overcome the beast re-enact the exodus deliverance. Strongest anchor; satisfies recurrence, thematic coherence, and historical availability decisively.

Then Moses and the children of Israel sang this song to Yahweh, and said, “I will sing to Yahweh, for he has triumphed gloriously. The horse and his rider he has thrown into the sea.


'the song of Moses' is also the technical title of the Song of Moses in Deut 32 (introduced Deut 31:30 - 32:43). Many read Rev's 'song of Moses' as composite/primarily this song, whose themes (God's just and true ways, vindication of His servants, judgment of nations) match v.3-4 far more than Exod 15's wording. Strong; LXX title shir/ode Mouse.

Moses spoke in the ears of all the assembly of Israel the words of this song, until they were finished.


'A God of faithfulness... just and right (dikaios kai hosios LXX) is he' underlies 'Righteous and true are your ways.' The dikaios + alethinos pairing is the verbal core of v.3b. Volume and verbal coherence high.

The Rock, his work is perfect, for all his ways are just. A God of faithfulness who does no wrong, just and right is he.


'Great are the works of the LORD' (megala ta erga kyriou LXX Ps 110:2) is the source of 'Great and marvelous are your works.' Hallel psalm of praise for God's works; strong verbal match.

Yahweh’s works are great, pondered by all those who delight in them.


'All the nations you have made will come and worship before you, O Lord, and glorify your name' (LXX Ps 85:9) supplies nearly verbatim the universal-worship clause of v.4 ('all the nations will come and worship before you... glorify your name'). High verbal volume.

All nations you have made will come and worship before you, Lord. They shall glorify your name.


'Who would not fear you, O King of the nations?' (basileu ton ethnon LXX) is the direct source of both 'Who wouldn't fear you' and the rare title 'King of the nations.' Verbal match is strong; this title is otherwise unparalleled in NT.

Who should not fear you, King of the nations? For it belongs to you; because among all the wise men of the nations, and in all their royal estate, there is no one like you.


'The LORD is righteous (dikaios) in all his ways' reinforces 'Righteous... are your ways'; the noun 'ways' (hodoi) tilts here as much as to Deut 32:4. Hallel-style praise.

Yahweh is righteous in all his ways, and gracious in all his works.


'The LORD has made known his salvation; he has revealed (apekalypsen LXX) his righteousness (dikaiosyne) in the sight of the nations' underlies 'your righteous acts (dikaiomata) have been revealed (ephanerothesan).' The 'revealed righteousness before the nations' motif is the same; cf. Ps 98:9 judging the nations.

Yahweh has made known his salvation. He has openly shown his righteousness in the sight of the nations.


'Who is like you, majestic in holiness, awesome in glorious deeds (thaumastos)?' supplies 'marvelous' (thaumasta) and the 'for you only are holy' clause. Verbal echo within the very song named in the verse, strengthening the Exod 15 anchor.

Who is like you, Yahweh, among the gods? Who is like you, glorious in holiness, fearful in praises, doing wonders?


'All flesh shall come to worship before me, says the LORD' - eschatological pilgrimage of all nations to worship; parallel to 'all the nations will come and worship before you.' Conceptual+verbal (proskynein).

It shall happen, that from one new moon to another, and from one Sabbath to another, shall all flesh come to worship before me,” says Yahweh.


'Wonderful (thaumasta) are your works' (LXX Ps 138:14) is a secondary candidate for 'marvelous are your works' alongside Ps 111:2/Exod 15:11. Verbal but commonplace praise diction.

I will give thanks to you, for I am fearfully and wonderfully made. Your works are wonderful. My soul knows that very well.


'How great are your works, O LORD!' (LXX Ps 91:6) - alternative/supplementary source for 'great... are your works.' Overlaps Ps 111:2; flagged as faint duplicate of a stock liturgical phrase.

How great are your works, Yahweh! Your thoughts are very deep.


'My name will be great among the nations... in every place incense is offered to my name' - universal honoring of God's name by the nations; reinforces 'all the nations will come and worship.' Faint, thematic.

For from the rising of the sun even to the going down of the same, my name is great among the nations, and in every place incense will be offered to my name, and a pure offering: for my name is great among the nations,” says Yahweh of Armies.


'For you are great and do wondrous things (thaumasta); you alone are God' - continues Ps 86:9 and reinforces both 'great and marvelous' and 'you only' (monos) in v.4. Same psalm context as the strong v.4 worship clause.

For you are great, and do wondrous things. You are God alone.


The crystalline expanse 'like the awesome gleam of crystal' over the living creatures supplies the throne-vision imagery behind the 'sea of glass' (hyaline thalassa), cf. Rev 4:6. 'Mixed with fire' adds Ezekiel 1's fire/amber. Imagery transfer.

Over the head of the living creature there was the likeness of an expanse, like the awesome crystal to look on, stretched out over their heads above.


'Sea of glass mixed with fire' and victory over the beast pair with Daniel 7's beast judged and given to the burning fire; the 'beast' the victors overcame is the Danielic/Rev-13 beast. Conceptual link to the chapter's beast theme.

I saw at that time because of the voice of the great words which the horn spoke; I saw even until the animal was slain, and its body destroyed, and it was given to be burned with fire.


Root of Jesse to whom 'the nations shall inquire' - eschatological nations-gathering; faint background to v.4's universal worship alongside Isa 66:23. Contested as too generic.

It will happen in that day that the nations will seek the root of Jesse, who stands as a banner of the peoples; and his resting place will be glorious.


'The cloud covered the tent of meeting, and the glory of the LORD filled the tabernacle; Moses could not enter' (Exod 40:34-35) is the direct source of 'the temple was filled with smoke from the glory of God... no one was able to enter.' Verbal+thematic core; ties the heavenly naos to the wilderness tabernacle named in v.5.

Then the cloud covered the Tent of Meeting, and Yahweh’s glory filled the tabernacle.


At the temple's dedication 'the cloud filled the house of the LORD, so that the priests could not stand to minister because of the cloud, for the glory of the LORD filled the house' (1 Kgs 8:10-11). Parallel 'glory fills / none can enter' motif; doublet of Exod 40:34-35.

It came to pass, when the priests had come out of the holy place, that the cloud filled Yahweh’s house,


'the tabernacle of the testimony' (he skene tou martyriou LXX) is the precise LXX title behind 'the temple of the tabernacle of the testimony.' This exact construction is the standard Septuagint name for the wilderness sanctuary; high verbal volume and distinctiveness.

This is the amount of material used for the tabernacle, even the Tabernacle of the Testimony, as they were counted, according to the commandment of Moses, for the service of the Levites, by the hand of Ithamar, the son of Aaron the priest.


'the house was filled with smoke' (kapnos) at Isaiah's throne-vision is the closest verbal match for 'filled with smoke,' linking theophany-judgment to temple glory. The word 'smoke' (not 'cloud') tilts Rev toward Isaiah 6 over Exod 40.

The foundations of the thresholds shook at the voice of him who called, and the house was filled with smoke.


The man 'clothed in linen' (LXX endedykos podere) with a writer's case, among the executioners of judgment on the city, models the seven angels 'clothed with linen' who come out to execute the plagues. Agent-of-judgment + linen vesture match. Cf. Ezek 9:3, 10:2,6-7.

Behold, six men came from the way of the upper gate, which lies toward the north, every man with his slaughter weapon in his hand; and one man in their midst clothed in linen, with a writer’s inkhorn by his side. They went in, and stood beside the bronze altar.


'a man clothed in linen, with a belt of fine gold (LXX) around his waist' supplies both the linen and the 'golden sash/belt' of the seven angels (and cf. the girded breasts of the Son of Man, Rev 1:13). Strong verbal pairing of linen + gold girdle.

I lifted up my eyes, and looked, and behold, a man clothed in linen, whose thighs were adorned with pure gold of Uphaz:


Levites appointed over 'the tabernacle of the testimony' (skene tou martyriou); recurs Num 1:53, 10:11, 17:7-8. Reinforces the LXX title in v.5 and the sanctuary-service frame for the angelic ministers. Doublet of Exod 38:21.

but appoint the Levites over the Tabernacle of the Testimony, and over all its furnishings, and over all that belongs to it. They shall carry the tabernacle, and all its furnishings; and they shall take care of it, and shall encamp around it.


The high priest on the Day of Atonement puts on 'the holy linen tunic... a linen sash'; the angels' priestly linen-and-sash vesture evokes Yom Kippur sanctuary service. Priestly-cultic coloring of the judgment scene.

He shall put on the holy linen coat. He shall have the linen breeches on his body, and shall put on the linen sash, and he shall be clothed with the linen turban. They are the holy garments. He shall bathe his body in water, and put them on.


'the Levites shall camp around the tabernacle of the testimony, that there be no wrath on the congregation' - the title plus 'wrath' resonates faintly with the bowls 'full of the wrath of God.' Contested as coincidental term-clustering.

But the Levites shall encamp around the Tabernacle of the Testimony, that there may be no wrath on the congregation of the children of Israel: and the Levites shall be responsible for the Tabernacle of the Testimony.”


'the glory of the LORD filled the house of the LORD, and I fell on my face' - Ezekiel's temple-glory vision parallels 'the temple was filled with... the glory of God.' Reinforces the Exod 40 / 1 Kgs 8 glory-filling cluster in a temple setting.

Then he brought me by the way of the north gate before the house; and I looked, and behold, Yahweh’s glory filled Yahweh’s house: and I fell on my face.


'I saw the Lord... high and lifted up, and the train of his robe filled the temple (naos)' - the temple-filling theophany frames v.8 alongside the smoke of Isa 6:4. Same vision unit.

In the year that king Uzziah died, I saw the Lord sitting on a throne, high and lifted up; and his train filled the temple.


Parallel to 1 Kgs 8: 'the house was filled with a cloud... so that the priests could not stand to minister, for the glory of the LORD filled the house of God' (2 Chr 5:13-14). Chronicler doublet of the temple-glory motif; faint.

when the trumpeters and singers were as one, to make one sound to be heard in praising and thanking Yahweh; and when they lifted up their voice with the trumpets and cymbals and instruments of music, and praised Yahweh, saying, “For he is good; for his loving kindness endures forever!” then the house was filled with a cloud, even Yahweh’s house,


Sinai 'wrapped in smoke (kapnos LXX), because the LORD descended on it in fire... and the smoke went up' - theophanic smoke; a secondary background to 'smoke from the glory of God' alongside Isa 6:4. Faint, the people likewise barred from approach (Exod 19:21-23).

Mount Sinai, all it, smoked, because Yahweh descended on it in fire; and its smoke ascended like the smoke of a furnace, and the whole mountain quaked greatly.


'I lift up my hand to heaven and swear, As I live forever' (zo ego eis ton aiona) - source of the divine-life formula 'God, who lives forever and ever,' fittingly drawn from the Song of Moses sung in this very chapter. Faint but contextually apt.

For I lift up my hand to heaven and declare, as I live forever,


The man clothed in linen swears 'by him who lives forever' that it shall be for a time, times, and half a time 'when the shattering... is finished (syntelesthesetai)' - pairs the linen-clad figure, the 'lives forever' oath, and judgment 'finished' (cf. 'until the seven plagues... finished'). Multiple faint contacts.

I heard the man clothed in linen, who was above the waters of the river, when he held up his right hand and his left hand to heaven, and swore by him who lives forever that it shall be for a time, times, and a half; and when they have made an end of breaking in pieces the power of the holy people, all these things shall be finished.


Sixth Egyptian plague: 'a boil breaking out with sores' on man and beast; volume + recurrence. Bowl 1 replays the plague onto those bearing the beast's mark, an anti-seal. Strong verbal (helkos/sore) and thematic correspondence.

It shall become small dust over all the land of Egypt, and shall be a boil breaking out with boils on man and on animal, throughout all the land of Egypt.” They took ashes of the furnace, and stood before Pharaoh; and Moses sprinkled it up toward the sky; and it became a boil breaking out with boils on man and on animal. The magicians couldn’t stand before Moses because of the boils; for the boils were on the magicians, and on all the Egyptians.


First Egyptian plague: the Nile and all Egyptian waters turned to blood, fish die, water undrinkable. Bowls 2-3 universalize this: sea (v.3) and rivers/springs (v.4) become blood, every sea-creature dies. Volume + dense recurrence; the controlling subtext.

Thus says Yahweh, “In this you shall know that I am Yahweh. Behold, I will strike with the rod that is in my hand on the waters which are in the river, and they shall be turned to blood. The fish that are in the river shall die, and the river shall become foul; and the Egyptians shall loathe to drink water from the river.”’” Yahweh said to Moses, “Tell Aaron, ‘Take your rod, and stretch out your hand over the waters of Egypt, over their rivers, over their […]


'They have poured out [the saints'] blood like water'; v.10 'Avenge the outpoured blood of your servants.' Rev 16:6 'they poured out the blood of the saints' echoes the lament's verb and the cry for vindication answered in the lex talionis of giving blood to drink.

Their blood they have shed like water around Jerusalem. There was no one to bury them.


'I will make your oppressors eat their own flesh, and they shall be drunk with their own blood as with wine.' The poetic talion of forcing persecutors to drink blood underwrites Rev 16:6 ('you have given them blood to drink').

I will feed those who oppress you with their own flesh; and they shall be drunken with their own blood, as with sweet wine: and all flesh shall know that I, Yahweh, am your Savior, and your Redeemer, the Mighty One of Jacob.”


Song of Moses: God 'avenges the blood of his servants.' The bowls as covenant vengeance for shed saintly blood; conceptual backbone of the 'they deserve this' verdict. LXX adds 'and will recompense.'

Rejoice, you nations, with his people, for he will avenge the blood of his servants. He will take vengeance on his adversaries, and will make atonement for his land and for his people.

Rejoice, ye heavens, with him, and let all the angels of God worship him; rejoice ye Gentiles, with his people, and let all the sons of God strengthen themselves in him; for he will avenge the blood of his sons, and he will render vengeance, and recompense justice to his enemies, and will reward them that hate him; and the Lord shall purge the land of his people.


'Righteous are you, O LORD, and upright are your judgments' — verbal template for the altar's doxology (16:7) and the water-angel's 'You are righteous... because you have judged.' LXX dikaios... ta krimata sou closely parallels Greek of Rev.

You are righteous, Yahweh. Your judgments are upright.


'The judgments of the LORD are true and righteous altogether' (LXX 18:10 alethina... dedikaiomena) — near-verbatim source for 16:7 'true and righteous are your judgments.' Flags LXX dependence over Hebrew.

The fear of Yahweh is clean, enduring forever. Yahweh’s ordinances are true, and righteous altogether.


Covenant curse: 'The LORD will strike you with grievous boils... from sole to crown.' Reinforces the sore of bowl 1 as covenant-curse judgment, paired with the Exodus plague.

Yahweh will strike you in the knees and in the legs with a sore boil, of which you can not be healed, from the sole of your foot to the crown of your head.


The water-angel's 'who is and who was' (16:5) draws on the divine name formula rooted in 'I AM,' the eternal Holy One whose self-naming guarantees the justice of judgment.

God said to Moses, “I AM WHO I AM,” and he said, “You shall tell the children of Israel this: ‘I AM has sent me to you.’”


'The life is in the blood' — undergirds why water-turned-to-blood and 'blood as of a dead man' (16:3) signify death and defiled life-source; faint, conceptual.

For the life of the flesh is in the blood; and I have given it to you on the altar to make atonement for your souls: for it is the blood that makes atonement by reason of the life.


'Whoever sheds man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed' — the bloodguilt-talion principle behind 'given them blood to drink.' Faint, thematic.

Whoever sheds man’s blood, his blood will be shed by man, for God made man in his own image.


Ninth Egyptian plague: thick darkness over the land of Egypt for three days. Bowl 5 darkens the beast's kingdom; the gnawing of tongues dramatizes the palpable darkness ('darkness that may be felt'). Strong plague correspondence.

Yahweh said to Moses, “Stretch out your hand toward the sky, that there may be darkness over the land of Egypt, even darkness which may be felt.” Moses stretched out his hand toward the sky, and there was a thick darkness in all the land of Egypt three days.


Song of Moses curses: 'wasted with hunger, devoured by burning heat [LXX kausoni].' The scorching fire of bowl 4 (16:8-9) draws on the covenant-curse fever/heat motif. Flagged faint per brief; LXX kauson aligns with Greek kauma.

They shall be wasted with hunger, and devoured with burning heat and bitter destruction. I will send the teeth of animals on them, with the venom of vipers that glide in the dust.


'The day comes, burning like an oven... it shall burn them up.' The eschatological day's scorching fire informs the sun-bowl's torment of the unrepentant. Conceptual + thematic.

“For, behold, the day comes, it burns as a furnace; and all the proud, and all who work wickedness, will be stubble; and the day that comes will burn them up,” says Yahweh of Armies, “that it shall leave them neither root nor branch.


Belshazzar, confronted, 'did not humble himself' and 'praised gods... you have not glorified' God. The refusal-to-glorify and non-repentance of 16:9 echoes the hardened pagan king motif. Faint.

You, his son, Belshazzar, have not humbled your heart, though you knew all this, but have lifted up yourself against the Lord of heaven; and they have brought the vessels of his house before you, and you and your lords, your wives and your concubines, have drunk wine from them; and you have praised the gods of silver and gold, of brass, iron, wood, and stone, which don’t see, nor hear, nor know; and the God in whose hand your breath is, and whose are all […]


Pharaoh's hardened heart / refusal to relent under plagues; the bowls' refrain 'they didn't repent' (16:9,11) re-enacts the Exodus hardening pattern. Thematic, faint.

Pharaoh’s heart was hardened, and he didn’t listen to them; as Yahweh had spoken.


Hungry, enraged people 'curse their king and their God, and turn their faces upward' into 'darkness and distress.' Parallels the cursing-amid-darkness of bowl 5. Faint, possible source for tongue-gnawing rage.

They will pass through it, very distressed and hungry; and it will happen that when they are hungry, they will worry, and curse by their king and by their God. They will turn their faces upward, and look to the earth, and see distress, darkness, and the gloom of anguish. They will be driven into thick darkness.


Second Egyptian plague: frogs swarm up from the Nile at Aaron's stretched hand. The 'three unclean spirits like frogs' (16:13) from the mouths of the satanic triad invert the plague — now frogs are demonic deceivers issuing from the dragon. Strong verbal (batrachoi) + plague link.

If you refuse to let them go, behold, I will plague all your borders with frogs: and the river shall swarm with frogs, which shall go up and come into your house, and into your bedroom, and on your bed, and into the house of your servants, and on your people, and into your ovens, and into your kneading troughs: and the frogs shall come up both on you, and on your people, and on all your servants.’” Yahweh said to Moses, “Tell Aaron, ‘Stretch out your hand […]


Oracle against Babylon: 'I will dry up her sea and make her fountain dry.' With Jer 50:38 ('a drought on her waters') the drying of Babylon's river-defense underlies the Euphrates dried up for invading kings (16:12).

Therefore thus says Yahweh: Behold, I will plead your cause, and take vengeance for you; and I will dry up her sea, and make her fountain dry.


The LORD will 'utterly destroy the tongue of the sea of Egypt' and smite the River into seven channels so a highway is made for the remnant. New-Exodus drying-of-waters to prepare a 'way' (16:12 'that the way might be prepared') for travelers; strong verbal match on highway/way.

Yahweh will utterly destroy the tongue of the Egyptian sea; and with his scorching wind he will wave his hand over the River, and will split it into seven streams, and cause men to march over in sandals. There will be a highway for the remnant that is left of his people from Assyria, like there was for Israel in the day that he came up out of the land of Egypt.


'I will gather all the nations... to the valley of Jehoshaphat and enter into judgment.' With Joel 3:11-14 ('Let the nations... come up... multitudes in the valley of decision') it is the controlling subtext for gathering the kings to the eschatological war (16:14,16).

I will gather all nations, and will bring them down into the valley of Jehoshaphat; and I will execute judgment on them there for my people, and for my heritage, Israel, whom they have scattered among the nations. They have divided my land,


'I will gather all the nations against Jerusalem to battle' on the Day of the LORD. Direct template for gathering the kings of the whole earth 'for the war of that great day' (16:14).

For I will gather all nations against Jerusalem to battle; and the city will be taken, the houses rifled, and the women ravished. Half of the city will go out into captivity, and the rest of the people will not be cut off from the city.


'My decision is to gather nations... to pour out my indignation.' Verbal 'gather the nations' + pouring-out wrath aligns with the bowls' gathering for judgment. LXX synagōgē language parallels Rev synagagein.

“Therefore wait for me”, says Yahweh, “until the day that I rise up to the prey, for my determination is to gather the nations, that I may assemble the kingdoms, to pour on them my indignation, even all my fierce anger, for all the earth will be devoured with the fire of my jealousy.


Josiah slain by Pharaoh Necho at Megiddo — the archetypal catastrophe at that site feeding 'Megiddo/Har-Magedon' (16:16) as a name for definitive defeat. Historical-typological.

In his days Pharaoh Necoh king of Egypt went up against the king of Assyria to the river Euphrates: and king Josiah went against him; and Pharaoh Necoh killed him at Megiddo, when he had seen him. His servants carried him in a chariot dead from Megiddo, and brought him to Jerusalem, and buried him in his own tomb. The people of the land took Jehoahaz the son of Josiah, and anointed him, and made him king in his father’s place.


'The mourning of Hadad-rimmon in the plain of Megiddo' — Megiddo as a place of great mourning/defeat, contributing to the symbolic 'Megiddo/Har-Magedon' of 16:16. Onomastic source.

In that day there will be a great mourning in Jerusalem, like the mourning of Hadadrimmon in the valley of Megiddon.


'The kings came and fought... at Taanach, by the waters of Megiddo' — the Song of Deborah's battle of kings at Megiddo where the LORD routs the foe; archetype for the kings gathered at Megiddo (16:16).

“The kings came and fought, then the kings of Canaan fought at Taanach by the waters of Megiddo. They took no plunder of silver.


'Tidings from the east' alarm the king; the 'kings from the sunrise' (16:12) may draw on the eastern-invader threat motif. Faint.

But news out of the east and out of the north shall trouble him; and he shall go out with great fury to destroy and utterly to sweep away many.


'The depths of the Nile shall dry up' — another drying-of-waters new-Exodus motif feeding the Euphrates' drying (16:12). Faint, cited in brief.

He will pass through the sea of affliction, and will strike the waves in the sea, and all the depths of the Nile will dry up; and the pride of Assyria will be brought down, and the scepter of Egypt will depart.


Shame of nakedness / being seen naked underlies 'keeps his clothes, so that he doesn't walk naked, and they see his shame' (16:15). Faint, thematic.

Their eyes were opened, and they both knew that they were naked. They sewed fig leaves together, and made coverings for themselves. They heard the voice of Yahweh God walking in the garden in the cool of the day, and the man and his wife hid themselves from the presence of Yahweh God among the trees of the garden. Yahweh God called to the man, and said to him, “Where are you?” The man said, “I heard your voice in the garden, and I was afraid, because I […]


Sinai theophany: thunders, lightnings, and the whole mountain quaking greatly. The seventh bowl's 'lightnings, sounds, thunders, and a great earthquake' (16:18) is patterned on the covenant-making theophany, now as covenant judgment.

On the third day, when it was morning, there were thunders and lightnings, and a thick cloud on the mountain, and the sound of an exceedingly loud trumpet; and all the people who were in the camp trembled. Moses led the people out of the camp to meet God; and they stood at the lower part of the mountain. Mount Sinai, all it, smoked, because Yahweh descended on it in fire; and its smoke ascended like the smoke of a furnace, and the whole mountain quaked […]


Gog oracle: 'a great earthquake... the mountains shall be thrown down,' all creatures quake at God's presence. Direct source for the unprecedented earthquake and mountains/islands fleeing (16:18,20).

For in my jealousy and in the fire of my wrath have I spoken, Surely in that day there shall be a great shaking in the land of Israel; so that the fish of the sea, and the birds of the sky, and the animals of the field, and all creeping things who creep on the earth, and all the men who are on the surface of the earth, shall shake at my presence, and the mountains shall be thrown down, and the steep places shall fall, and every wall shall fall to the […]


Against Gog: 'I will rain... great hailstones, fire, and sulfur.' Primary source for the talent-weight hailstones of bowl 7 (16:21), tied to the same Gog judgment as the earthquake.

With pestilence and with blood will I enter into judgment with him; and I will rain on him, and on his hordes, and on the many peoples who are with him, an overflowing shower, and great hailstones, fire, and sulfur.


'Take this cup of the wine of wrath... make all the nations drink it.' Source for Babylon being given 'the cup of the wine of the fierceness of his wrath' (16:19); the wrath-cup oracle that names Babylon's draught.

For thus says Yahweh, the God of Israel, to me: take this cup of the wine of wrath at my hand, and cause all the nations, to whom I send you, to drink it. They shall drink, and reel back and forth, and be mad, because of the sword that I will send among them.


'You who have drunk... the cup of his wrath, the bowl of staggering.' Reinforces the wrath-cup imagery applied to Babylon (16:19); verbal cup-of-wrath chain shared with Jer 25 and Rev 14:10.

Awake, awake, stand up, Jerusalem, that have drunk at the hand of Yahweh the cup of his wrath; you have drunken the bowl of the cup of staggering, and drained it.


The LORD casts great hailstones from heaven on the fleeing kings — 'more died from the hailstones than... by the sword.' Holy-war hail against enemy kings underlies the lethal hail of 16:21.

As they fled from before Israel, while they were at the descent of Beth Horon, Yahweh hurled down great stones from the sky on them to Azekah, and they died. There were more who died from the hailstones than who the children of Israel killed with the sword.


'A time of trouble such as never was since there was a nation.' The 'unprecedented' formula of the earthquake 'such as was not since there were men' (16:18) draws on Daniel's superlative-tribulation language.

“At that time shall Michael stand up, the great prince who stands for the children of your people; and there shall be a time of trouble, such as never was since there was a nation even to that same time: and at that time your people shall be delivered, everyone who shall be found written in the book.


The wrath-cup taken from Zion and put 'into the hand of your tormentors' — the reversal whereby the oppressor (Babylon) now drinks the cup; supports the Babylon-remembered judgment of 16:19.

Thus says your Lord Yahweh, and your God who pleads the cause of his people, “Behold, I have taken out of your hand the cup of staggering, even the bowl of the cup of my wrath; you shall no more drink it again: and I will put it into the hand of those who afflict you, who have said to your soul, ‘Bow down, that we may walk over you;’ and you have laid your back as the ground, and as the street, to those who walk over.”


Men flee 'when he arises to terrify the earth'; mountains and the proud brought low. The fleeing islands and vanished mountains (16:20) draw on the Day-of-the-LORD cosmic-upheaval motif. Cf. Isa 40:4.

Men shall go into the caves of the rocks, and into the holes of the earth, from before the terror of Yahweh, and from the glory of his majesty, when he arises to shake the earth mightily.


Cosmic de-creation: mountains quaking, hills moving, no man left. Reinforces the dissolution of mountains/islands (16:20) as un-creation judgment. Faint.

I saw the earth, and, behold, it was waste and void; and the heavens, and they had no light. I saw the mountains, and behold, they trembled, and all the hills moved back and forth. I saw, and behold, there was no man, and all the birds of the sky had fled. I saw, and behold, the fruitful field was a wilderness, and all its cities were broken down at the presence of Yahweh, before his fierce anger.


Babylon apostrophized as 'you who dwell on many waters, abundant in treasures' — the unique source for the harlot 'who sits on many waters,' transposed from Babylon's literal Euphrates canals onto the symbolic seat of Rome. Hays: volume, recurrence (Babylon-oracle of Jer 50–51 anchors Rev 17–18), thematic coherence (judgment of Babylon). LXX Jer 28:13.

You who dwell on many waters, abundant in treasures, your end has come, the measure of your covetousness.


'Babylon was a golden cup in the LORD's hand, making all the earth drunken; the nations drank of her wine, therefore the nations are mad' — direct verbal-conceptual template for the golden cup in her hand and the nations made drunk with the wine of her fornication. Hays: volume (golden cup + drunkenness + nations), distinctiveness. LXX Jer 28:7.

Babylon has been a golden cup in Yahweh’s hand, who made all the earth drunken: the nations have drunk of her wine; therefore the nations are mad.


Oholah/Oholibah (Samaria/Jerusalem) as two harlot sisters arrayed in finery, fornicating with the nations and their kings, judged by their former lovers — the controlling type for the harlot-city dressed in purple/scarlet and gold who commits fornication with the kings of the earth. Hays: thematic coherence, recurrence across Rev 17.

Yahweh’s word came again to me, saying, Son of man, there were two women, the daughters of one mother: and they played the prostitute in Egypt; they played the prostitute in their youth; there were their breasts pressed, and there was handled the bosom of their virginity. Their names were Oholah the elder, and Oholibah her sister: and they became mine, and they bore sons and daughters. As for their names, Samaria is Oholah, and Jerusalem Oholibah. Oholah […]


Jerusalem the harlot decked by God with gold, fine linen, embroidered cloth and jewels, then prostituting herself to every passerby and judged by stripping and burning (cf. 16:39) — source of the harlot's adornment (gold, precious stones) and the whole adulterous-city schema. Hays: volume, coherence with v.16's stripping/burning.

Again Yahweh’s word came to me, saying, Son of man, cause Jerusalem to know her abominations; and say, Thus says the Lord Yahweh to Jerusalem: Your birth and your birth is of the land of the Canaanite; the Amorite was your father, and your mother was a Hittite. As for your birth, in the day you were born your navel was not cut, neither were you washed in water to cleanse you; you weren’t salted at all, nor swaddled at all. No eye pitied you, to do any of […]


Tyre the forgotten harlot who 'plays the harlot with all the kingdoms of the world on the face of the earth' and gathers her hire — closest OT parallel to 'the kings of the earth committed fornication' with the merchant-harlot (developed in Rev 18). Hays: distinctive 'harlotry with the kingdoms of the earth' phrase.

Take a harp; go about the city, you prostitute that has been forgotten. Make sweet melody. Sing many songs, that you may be remembered. It will happen after the end of seventy years that Yahweh will visit Tyre, and she shall return to her wages, and will play the prostitute with all the kingdoms of the world on the surface of the earth.


Nineveh, 'the well-favored harlot, mistress of sorceries, who sells nations through her harlotry' — the harlot-imperial-city betraying nations by her seductions; reinforces the wine-of-fornication-intoxicates-the-nations motif. Hays: thematic coherence, recurrence of harlot-city topos.

because of the multitude of the prostitution of the alluring prostitute, the mistress of witchcraft, who sells nations through her prostitution, and families through her witchcraft.


Nebuchadnezzar's boast 'Is not this great Babylon, which I have built?' — the title 'Babylon the great' likely crystallizes from this Danielic phrase (Aramaic Dan 4:27 MT). Hays: distinctive collocation 'Babylon the great.'

The king spoke and said, Is not this great Babylon, which I have built for the royal dwelling place, by the might of my power and for the glory of my majesty?


Daniel's fourth beast, 'terrible, dreadful... and it had ten horns' — source of the beast 'having seven heads and ten horns'; the ten horns are explicitly the Danielic kings (cf. v.12). Hays: volume, distinctiveness of ten-horned beast.

After this I saw in the night visions, and, behold, a fourth animal, awesome and powerful, and strong exceedingly; and it had great iron teeth; it devoured and broke in pieces, and stamped the residue with its feet: and it was diverse from all the animals that were before it; and it had ten horns.


The little horn with 'a mouth speaking great things' (blasphemies, cf. 7:25) feeds the beast 'full of blasphemous names.' Hays: thematic coherence with Daniel's blaspheming horn.

I considered the horns, and behold, there came up among them another horn, a little one, before which three of the first horns were plucked up by the roots: and behold, in this horn were eyes like the eyes of a man, and a mouth speaking great things.